German monk, priest, professor of theology and iconic figure of the Protestant Reformation, Martin was a force to be reckened with in the arena. He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with money. His translation of the Bible into the vernacular (instead of Latin) made it more accessible, causing a tremendous impact on the power of the Catholic church.
Leonardo Da Vinci
An Italian Renaissance polymath: painter, sculptor, architect, musician, scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, geologist, cartographer, botanist, and writer whose genius, perhaps more than that of any other figure, epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal. Leonardo's intelligence and cunning in the arena has seen few rivals of this magnitude. Leonardo is revered for his technological ingenuity. He conceptualized a helicopter, a tank, concentrated solar power, a calculator, and made important discoveries in anatomy, civil engineering, optics, and hydrodynamics.
Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian, who has been "considered by many to be the greatest and most influential scientist who ever lived."
Newton described gravity and the three laws of motion, which dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. His scientific discoveries changed the face of the arena, and how the Tributes would conduct themselves from then on! Newton showed that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws.
John Locke
John Locke, widely known as the Father of Classical Liberalism, was an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers in the arena.
His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence.[5]
The Middle Ages
In this area of District 8, we like to think of knights in shining armor, lavish banquets, wandering minstrels, kings, queens, bishops, monks, pilgrims, and glorious pageantry. In movies and books, medieval life seems heroic, entertaining, and romantic.
In reality, life in the Middle Ages, a period that extended from approximately the fifth century to the fifteenth century in Western Europe, was sometimes all these things, as well as harsh, uncertain, and often dangerous.
Feudalism
For safety and for defense, people in the Middle Ages formed small communities around a central lord or master. The feudal system in Europe had kings and queens at the top, followed by rich, land owning lords, warrior knights, and then finally peasants and serfs, who were tied to the land.
Under feudalism in Europe, people received protection from large landowners in return for military service, working on the lord's land, and performing necessary tasks such as repairing bridges, working in the mill, or gathering wood. Vassals were landowners who had given title of their estates to the feudal lord. Vassals also served the king. However, most people lived on a manor, which consisted of the castle, the church, the village, and the surrounding farm land. These manors were isolated, with occasional visits from peddlers, pilgrims on their way to the Crusades, or soldiers from other fiefdoms.
The qualities important in feudalism were courtesy, loyalty, bravery, and obedience. These became known as "chivalry" and became the code of the Knights. In addition, one of the most important documents that would later inspire American ideas of of justice under the law was the Magna Carta. This document founded the official idea that ordinary people had rights, set up the basis of "due process of law," and even stated that the king was must also follow the laws of the land!
Religion
The Catholic Church was the only church in Europe during the Middle Ages, and it had its own laws and large coffers. Church leaders such as bishops and archbishops sat on the king's council and played leading roles in government. Bishops, who were often wealthy and came from noble families, ruled over groups of parishes. Parish priests, on the other hand, came from humbler backgrounds and often had little education. The village priest tended to the sick and, if he was able, taught Latin and the Bible to the youth of the village.
Crusades: The Holy Wars
The Crusades, a series of Holy Wars, were first preached in 1095 by Pope Claremont. The stated purpose of the Crusades was to insure the safe travel of Christians who wanted to visit the Holy Land of Jerusalem. In reality, the Crusades were fought to win back control of the Holy Land from Muslims.
Over time, the Crusades became a series of great military expeditions undertaken by the Christian nations of Europe. There were a total of nine crusades! For a period of two hundred years Europe and Asia were engaged in almost constant warfare. Jewish populations in both Europe and the Middle East were attacked by Christians. Christians also burned and looted the Christian city of Constantinople. Eight hundred years after the Fourth Crusade, Pope John Paul II wrote, "It is tragic that the assailants, who set out to secure free access for Christians to the Holy Land, turned against their brothers in the faith. The fact that they were Latin Christians fills Catholics with deep regret."
Throughout this period there was a continuous movement of crusaders to and from the Muslim controlled lands in Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. The effects of the Crusades on Europe of the Middle Ages were an important factor in the history of the progress of civilization. The Crusades influenced the wealth and power of the Catholic Church, political matters, commerce, feudalism, intellectual development, social effects, material effects and even prompted the famous Voyages of discovery. As a result, a plethora of new ideas and products were introduced to Europe.
The Renaissance (1300-1650)
"Renaissance," is french for "rebirth," and perfectly describes the intellectual and economic changes that occurred in Europe from the fourteenth through the sixteenth centuries.
During this era, Europe emerged from the economic stagnation of the Middle Ages and experienced a time of financial growth. The growth of wealthy trading cities and new ways of thinking helped lead to a rebirth of the arts and learning. Major ideas of the Renaissance included realism, humanism and individualism.
As you saw in the video, the beginning of the Renaissance ushered in changes to society. First, the spread of the Black Plague, starvation and warfare that had overtaken Europe during the 1300s had led to a decrease in population. As a result, food production had increased and the price for food had gone down (there were less mouths to feed now), cheaper foods meant more money to spend on other things, like luxury items, education, arts, music, etc.
Humanism, Science, and Art
New ways of thinking lead a new emphasis on studying worldly subjects and focusing on people.
Humanism was the study of human nature and Humanists believed in the importance of the individual. Humanists believed that if people could understand the world, they could improve it.
People had a renewed interest in Greek and Roman culture, and education focused more on classics such as grammar, poetry, history, Latin and Greek. Artists created idealized and symbolic representations and
the purchase of art became a symbol of social status, as wealthy
collectors competed for individual works. Thus, patrons of the arts were extremely important during the Renaissance because they provided money for artists and writers to complete their work
Renaissance Artists
Leonardo da Vinci was famous for his painting, science discoveries, and accomplishments in many other areas. Among his creative ideas were the drawings for a horseless carriage and a parachute. Leonardo's most famous paintings are the Mona Lisa and the Last Supper.
Michelangelo, a foremost artist during the Renaissance studied the human anatomy so he could draw and sculpt the human figure realistically. He is most well known for painting the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.
William Shakespeare is still considered one of the world’s greatest playwrights. He wrote many famous plays. Romeo and Juliet is one of his most well-known.
Johannes Gutenberg helped spread Renaissance ideas with the European invention of the moveable type printing press.
As a result, Renaissance ideas soon spread beyond Italy by means of trade, travel by artists and scholars, and books influencing the art and ideas of the North. Cities grew larger and trade networks grew more expansive, but it wasn't just goods that were being trade. Europeans were trading ideas! Philosophers and writers combined their interest of theology, fiction, and history creating new philosophical works, novels, dramas, and poems. As a result, the Catholic church began to lose its appeal. Officials were being found financial corrupt, abusing their power, behaving immorally. Some began to see the church as more interested in money that saving people's souls and respect for the clergy weakened (and the heavy taxes didn't help!).
The Reformation
Humanism and scientific inquiry led to increased criticism of the Roman Catholic church. In effort to bring about changes in religion and politics across Europe, a religious movement called the Protestant Reformation emerged. Early reformers felt the church need to give up its earthly possessions, they criticized the power of the pope and the wealth of the church and how scripture was written in form Latin-- intended for church leaders, not the common people! As scrutiny increased, even the King began to push against the church.
King Henry VIII of England demanded that the Church grant him a divorce. When the Church refused, Parliament passed the “Act of Supremacy” creating the Church of England, splitting off from the Catholic church. The Catholic Church split in half, having two popes at the same time, it is called The Great Schism.
A man named Martin Luther, began the Protestant Reformation as his idea that God's grace could not be won by good works, but by inner faith alone, spread. The 95 Theses of Martin Luther stated his objections to the corruption within the Catholic church and the practice of selling indulgences. This was the beginning of the Reformation. He declared that the only head of the Christian Church was Jesus, not the pope, a message that contradicted basic Catholic beliefs. Justification by faith, a key idea of Martin Luther, held that a person could achieve forgiveness if he accepted God. Martin Luther empowered people to interpret the scripture themselves, and translated the bible in to German so more people could read it without the aid of clergy. Furthermore, Luther's message even swung open the door for other people with differing religious ideas. The Calvinists, followers of John Calvin, believed that one should lead a simple life and be devoted to God. They also believed that nothing should interfere with individual experience of God. Calvin promoted the idea of predestination. God determined before a person was born whether they would go to heaven or not.
As Protestantism spread, Catholics at all levels recognized the need for reform in the church, and their grew a new zeal in Catholics everywhere. In order to counter the Reformation, the church established a church court and tried people for being Protestant, witchcraft, or breaking church law! The Spanish Inquisition was even used to impose (force) conversion of Jews and Muslims too. The church tried to stamp out rebellion by making a list of forbidden books, warning people that reading these books would cause them to lose their souls. However, the accounts of torture and executions by courts damaged the church's image and people continued to explore with a new religious freedom.
The Counter-Reformation occurred when the Catholic Church officials met at the Council of Trent and ended the sale of church indulgences and required more training for priests. This helped the church win back some supporters.
Hoever, as Catholic power decline, people identified themselves less by their religion, and more by a sense of national identity. As a result, the Protestant Reformation indirect encouraged the formation of independent states and nations! Rulers and merchants wanted the state less involved in the government, and political power separated from churches.
The Scientific Revolution
The Scientific Revolution was the period of time during the 15th and 16th centuries characterized by new scientific ideas and the challenge of existing beliefs.
New Ways of thinking during the Renaissance and Reformation period led to remarkable discoveries during this time. As a result, Modern Science was born. Scientists now new that the sun was the center of the universe, rather than the earth as the church had claimed. Challenging this authority, led to new theories, inventions, and exploration of new lands, new people, and new animals.
Scientists began to study the natural world more closely, they began to fin that it did not match ancient beliefs. Scientists and Reformation leaders both questioned ideas which had existed for years. Explorers realized they needed more accurate instruments and maps if they were going to make it across the high seas. There were numerous discoveries in astronomy (space), physics, math, chemistry and biology. These advances influence developments in arts, architecture and philosophy and scholars began to wonder if they could solve poverty, war, or even ignorance. Galileo’s ideas challenged beliefs of the Catholic church. He said the earth moved around the sun. The Church taught that the earth was the center of the universe. Galileo made new discoveries through observation. Among them were the theory of oval planet orbits. The Catholic Church admitted the error condemning Galileo almost 300 years after the fact.
Astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus may be thought of as one of the first scientists to use data obtained from accurate observation to refute accepted belief. One of Kepler’s contributions to astronomy was that orbits of planets were oval. Mathematician Isaac Newton had logicalexplanations regarding forces in the universe. He discovered that the force called gravity held the universe together.Furthermore, the scientific method was invented. It is a series of steps using observation and experimentation in research that is still used today. It also included a hypothesis which could be verified by testing. A revolutionary aspect of scientific method was that people could not learn by accepting truths. Truths must be tested and proved.
One of the major ideas of the Enlightenment was applying the principles of scientific reason to social and political problems.
Age of Exploration
The Age of Exploration or Age of Discovery as it is sometimes called, officially began in the early 15th century and lasted until the 17th century. The period is characterized as a time when Europeans began exploring the world by sea in search of trading partners, new goods, and new trade routes. In addition, some explorers set sail to simply learn more about the world. Whatever their reasons though, the information gained during the Age of Exploration significantly helped in the advancement of geographic knowledge.
Reasons for Exploration and Key Voyages Though the desire to simply explore the unknown and discover new knowledge is a typical human trait, the world's famous explorers often lacked the funding needed for a ship, supplies, and a crew to get underway on their journeys. As a result, many turned to their respective governments which had their own desires for the exploration of new areas. Many nations were looking for goods such as silver and gold but one of the biggest reasons for exploration was the desire to find a new route for the spice and silk trades. When the Ottoman Empire took control of Constantinople in 1453, it blocked European access to the area, severely limiting trade. In addition, it also blocked access to North Africa and the Red Sea -- two very important trade routes to the Far East.
The first of the journeys associated with the Age of Discovery were conducted by the Portuguese under Prince Henry the Navigator. Portugal, in need of money, sent explorers to the New World in search of gold. These voyages were different than those previously conducted by the Portuguese because they covered a much larger area. Earlier sailors relied on portolan charts which are maps created for navigators based off of land features. Because these charts relied on the ability to see land, the voyages prior to those conducted by Prince Henry stayed along the coastlines.
In challenging this form of navigation, the Portuguese sailed out of sight of land and discovered the Madeira Islands in 1419 and the Azores in 1427. The main goal for the Portuguese voyages though was to discover a trade route to West Africa without having to go through the Sahara Desert. By the mid-1400s, this goal was realized and a trading port was established at Elmina in West Africa. New information from travelers such as Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta, improved maps and inventions that reached Europe and created desire for such items such as silk, gold, and spices. It also created an increased interest in exploration. Explorers trying to find the shortest way to the east were motivated by the search for these spices. Also during the Age of Discovery, were the famed voyages of Christopher Columbus. These voyages started as an attempt to find a trade route to Asia by sailing west. Instead, he reach America in 1492 and shared information on this newly found land with Spain and the rest of Europe. Shortly thereafter, the Portuguese explorer Pedro Alvares Cabral explored Brazil, setting off a conflict between Spain and Portugal in terms of the newly claimed lands. As a result, the Treaty of Tordesillas officially divided the world in half in 1494.
Some other important voyages of exploration that took place during the Age of Exploration were Ferdinand Magellan's attempted circumnavigation of the globe, the search for a trade route to Asia through the Northwest Passage, and Captain James Cook's voyages that allowed him to map various areas and travel as far as Alaska.
The End of the Age of Exploration The Age of Exploration ended in the early 17th century after technological advancements and increased knowledge of the world allowed Europeans to travel easily across the globe by sea. In addition, the creation of settlements along the coasts of the newly found areas created a network of communication and trade, therefore ending the need to search for trade routes.
Though the Age of Exploration officially ended in the 17th century, it is important to note however that the exploration did not cease entirely at this time. Eastern Australia was not discovered until 1770 and the Arctic and Antarctic areas were not heavily explored until the 19th century. Much of Africa also was also unexplored until the 19th and even early 20th centuries.
Technological Advancements
Furthermore, even though much of the travel during the Age of Exploration was done in an effort to find new trade routes, it did have a significant impact on geography. By traveling to different regions around the globe, explorers were able to learn more about areas like Africa and the Americas. In learning more about such places, explorers were able to bring knowledge of a larger world back to Europe. In addition to just learning about the presence of the lands themselves, these explorations often brought various new species (important to biogeography) and new cultures of people to light.
Methods of navigation and mapping also improved as a result of the travels of people like Prince Henry the Navigator. Prior to his expeditions, navigators used traditional portolan charts which kept them tied to the shoreline. Among the many goals of his expeditions were to develop a new nautical chart so future sailors could sail out of sight of land. He did so, creating one of the first nautical maps. These would later be further refined by explorers like Vasco De Gama, Columbus, and Cabral.
The Age of Exploration served as a stepping stone for geographic knowledge. It allowed more people to see and study various areas around the world which increased geographic study, giving us the basis for much of the knowledge we have today.
Enlightenment & The Age of Reason
During the eighteenth century, the Enlightenment emerged as a social, philosophical, political, and literary movement that espoused rational thought and methodical observation of the world. The term “Enlightenment” refers to the belief by the movement’s contributors that they were leaving behind the dark ignorance and blind belief that characterized the past. The freethinking writers of the period sought to evaluate and understand life by way of scientific observation and critical reasoning rather than through uncritically accepted religion, tradition, and social conventions. Out of the Enlightenment emerged the idea that natural rights were rights guaranteed to all including life, liberty, and the right to own property.
Although it was centered in France, the Enlightenment had adherents all over the world. Contributors to the movement include France’s Denis Diderot (who edited Encyclopédie), Voltaire (Candide), and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (The Social Contract), Germany’s Immanuel Kant (who is also associated with Transcendentalism), England’s David Hume, Italy’s Cesare Beccaria, and America’s Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson. John Locke, an Enlightenment philosopher, wrote Two Treaties of Government in 1690. In it he argued that an agreement between people and their ruler called a contract was the basis of government. He also said that people had a right to overthrow the ruler if the contract was not followed, and each person had the rights to life, liberty, and property protection. Thomas Jefferson borrowed many ideas from Locke when he wrote the Declaration of Independence.